Throughout Most of Human History, Families Had Many Children Because

The history of babyhood has been a topic of interest in social history since the highly influential book Centuries of Childhood, published by French historian Philippe Ariès in 1960. He argued "childhood" as a concept was created past modernistic guild. Ariès studied paintings, gravestones, furniture, and school records. He found earlier the 17th-century, children were represented as mini-adults.

Other scholars take emphasized how medieval and early on modern kid rearing was not indifferent, negligent, nor brutal. The historian Stephen Wilson argues that in the context of pre-industrial poverty and high babe mortality (with a third or more of the babies dying), actual child-rearing practices represented appropriate behavior in the circumstances. He points to all-encompassing parental care during sickness, and to grief at death, sacrifices by parents to maximize child welfare, and a wide cult of childhood in religious practise.^[1]

Preindustrial and medieval [edit]

Historians had causeless traditional families in the preindustrial era involved the extended family, with grandparent, parents, children and perhaps some other relatives all living together and ruled by an elderly patriarch. At that place were examples of this in the Balkans—and in aloof families. However, the typical design in Western Europe was the much simpler nuclear family of husband, wife and their children (and perhaps a servant, who might well be a relative). Children were ofttimes temporarily sent off every bit servants to relatives in need of help.^[2]

In medieval Europe at that place was a model of distinct stages of life, which demarcated when childhood began and concluded. A new baby was a notable result. Nobles immediately started thinking of a wedlock arrangement that would benefit the family. Birthdays were not major events as the children celebrated their saints' mean solar day after whom they were named. Church police force and common law regarded children as equal to adults for some purposes and distinct for other purposes.^[iii]

Didactics in the sense of training was the exclusive function of families for the vast majority of children until the 19th century. In the Middle Ages the major cathedrals operated education programs for small numbers of teenage boys designed to produce priests. Universities started to appear to railroad train physicians, lawyers, and government officials, and (mostly) priests. The showtime universities appeared around 1100: the University of Bologna in 1088, the University of Paris in 1150, and the Academy of Oxford in 1167. Students entered as young as thirteen and stayed for 6 to 12 years.^[4]

Early modern periods [edit]

In England during the Elizabethan era, the transmission of social norms was a family thing and children were taught the basic etiquette of proper manners and respecting others.^[v] Some boys attended grammer school, normally taught by the local priest.^{[half dozen]} During the 1600s, a shift in philosophical and social attitudes toward children and the notion of "babyhood" began in Europe.^[7] Adults increasingly saw children as divide beings, innocent and in demand of protection and training by the adults around them.

English language philosopher John Locke was specially influential in defining this new attitude towards children, especially with regard to his theory of the tabula rasa, promulgated in his 1690 An Essay Concerning Human being Understanding. In Locke's philosophy, tabula rasa was the theory that the (human) mind is at birth a "blank slate" without rules for processing data, and that data is added and rules for processing are formed solely by one'south sensory experiences. A corollary of this doctrine was that the mind of the child was born blank, and that information technology was the duty of the parents to imbue the child with correct notions. Locke himself emphasised the importance of providing children with "easy pleasant books" to develop their minds rather than using strength to hogtie them: "children may be cozened into a knowledge of the letters; exist taught to read, without perceiving it to be anything merely a sport, and play themselves into that which others are whipped for."

During the early period of capitalism, the rise of a large, commercial eye grade, mainly in the Protestant countries of Kingdom of the netherlands and England, brought about a new family ideology centred around the upbringing of children. Puritanism stressed the importance of individual salvation and concern for the spiritual welfare of children. It became widely recognized that children possess rights on their own behalf. This included the rights of poor children to sustenance, membership in a community, instruction, and chore training. The Poor Relief Acts in Elizabethan England put responsibleness on each Parish to intendance for all the poor children in the expanse.^[eight]

Childhood in Early Modern England [edit]

Throughout the grade of the Early Modern Menstruum, babyhood was carve up into multiple sections: boyhood, working and familial jobs, education, and sexual relations and spousal relationship. However, the ages defining these unlike steps in evolution were arbitrary. Regardless of the age descriptions of each developmental phase, each person went through these stages in their life. This research will focus on the stages of childhood within early modern England, specifically the mid-sixteenth century through the mid-seventeenth century.

Adolescence was a brusk-lived menstruation in a child's life. Many historians debate this quick transition into adult life. Philippe Ariès performed a study on childhood and argued that in theory and practice, adolescence was most unknown, stating that once a kid had reached the age of six or vii, they would get part of the developed world.^[9] Other historians accept argued that, "adolescence - the blossoming or lustful age...could begin at the historic period of 9 but also at fourteen; you lot could span the years between 14, or xviii, and upwardly to 25, 28, or but until marriage."^[10] It is hard to properly appraise the different stages of childhood because at that place was no defining moment that signaled the transition between stages. Thus making this arbitrary interpretation a conflict amongst historians. Regardless of this, there are nevertheless general categories that are somewhat extensive despite age differences.

A wide belief shared amongst theorists describes homo instincts every bit inherently sinful from adolescence, peculiarly in infants, children and youth.^[11] This links to the theory of the Greek physician, Galen. Within his theory, Galenic physiology believed that humans passed through four separate ages, each controlled past a humor.^[12] "Small infants were dominated past the blood humor; mature persons were governed past the black choler; and quondam historic period by the phlegm. Youth was governed past the red choler, which was also associated with hotness and dryness, with the summer season, and with fire...The notion of youth as a period governed past hot temper, or sense of humor, or fire...could exist used to evoke a variety of qualities: boldness, airs, excessive activeness, rashness, a spirit easily fatigued to quarrelling and vengeance, and especially to disobedience, riot, and rebelliousness."^[13]

This aggression and rashness associated with childhood boyhood resulted in a connection with sin in religion. Considering of this, parents were responsible for providing their children with "constant and diligent nurturing, strict discipline, and a proper didactics,"^[11] as role of the Catholic part in parenthood. Without these, their children would be tempted to practice wrong. To add to that, about half of children would die earlier they reached the age of x, then parents required strict bailiwick and hovered from using too much amore, which only increased the children'due south respect for their parents.^[xiv] Within multiple autobiographies from the early on modern menstruum, authors fifty-fifty admitted to struggling between whether to follow God or Satan's invitations.^[xv] Notwithstanding, nearly authors reprimanded themselves for having immoral thoughts,^[16] and even resulted in an inclination to spiritual practices afterward in life.

Despite how these negative theories correlated with adolescence, sometimes these behaviors were adequate considering the general consensus was that these behaviors would eventually disappear with fourth dimension. Therefore, non all associations with adolescence were unfavorable. It was important, however, that parents guide their children through these rough stages of adolescence to ensure complete emptying of these tendencies. Children valued their parents' opinion and blessing,^[17] thus emphasizing the importance of the parent-kid relationship during the stages of adolescence.

From a very young historic period, children were required to help with work within the family; these children were also expected to continue helping the family until they were able or willing to go out the house. As they grew, children were given more physically demanding or harder jobs. To add together to that, boys and girls had different tasks growing up that normally fit inside tasks they would have to perform later in life.

Children did have jobs inside the household that they performed year round. This includes, "fetching water and gathering sticks for fuel, going on errands, assisting mothers in milking, preparing food, cleaning, washing and mending.^[eighteen] These tasks were dependent on the regions each family unit lived in; rural families taught children how to spin and menu, and some girls were educated in stocking-knitting, paw-knitting, and lacemaking.^[18] These were useful skills for urban women to gain as they became popular industries in the 17th century.

In other seasons, children performed a myriad of tasks effectually the holding. Younger children helped with harrowing, scaring birds abroad from corn, pulling weeds, gathering fruits, and spreading dung for nutrient.^[18] During the wintertime, children still assisted their parents past "threshing, stacking sheaves, cleaning the barn and, in places and soils that required it in the winter, ploughing also."^[xviii]

By aiding in familial chores, children learned the importance and value in working. Not just was this essential to evolution, but it provided funds for families that were in poverty. From the sixteenth century to the commencement one-half of the seventeenth century, the population of England doubled, reaching 5 million.^[nineteen] As the population grew, and so did poverty. Children were more susceptible to poverty, which explains why working was so crucial; if children were not helping they could go an economic burden on their families.^[xix]

Within these responsibilities, there were differences in jobs based on gender. One account recalls that their sister was taught to read, knit, do needle piece of work, and spin.^[20] Non only that, but young girls also assisted in housework with washing, marketing and preparing nutrient.^[20] From this, one can infer that these jobs were typically given to women equally this correlated with tasks they would be performing later in life. Preparing children with the information they needed to succeed in life was ane of the many responsibilities parents' held.^[21]

Education was significantly different for men and women in England. Living in a patriarchal social club, men had societal advantages which included a stable instruction for the majority of their early life. Women, on the other paw, were typically educated in more than remedial tasks that would aid them in being homemakers or having basic jobs.

For men, their teaching primarily consisted of preparing them for future careers in diverse fields.^[22] Professions associated with "higher learning, the church, law, medicine, business and crafts, military service, the Navy and husbandry," ^[22] were deemed appropriate for men. The number of schools greatly increased in the seventeenth century, providing more than access for elementary and higher pedagogy.^[23] These were typically boarding schools, but there were women scattered around the country that taught basic reading and literacy to families who could not send their sons far abroad.^[24] Because of the easy access to schooling, many men were educated and able to obtain higher-level jobs. Liberal educational programs in England intended to prepare "'gentlemen for Parliament, the pulpit, and the bar; for the management of individual estates and public works for the professions and scholarship.'"^[25] Because of the arable opportunities, men rose to positions of power, whether information technology be in the household or politics.

Women, notwithstanding, did non accept the same access to these resources. There was an increase in the number of schoolgirls and girl'southward boarding schools. While men assumed the diverse positions offered to them, women learned "cookery and laundry… sewing… needlework… and the inculcation of social graces through the teaching of music and dancing." Schooling for women was primarily for domestic purposes. Also, schooling was non necessarily typical for women; normally, upper families educated their daughters. Overall, a meaning number of women were not formally educated.^[26] Having a classic didactics seemed similar luxury; knowing about "provisioning, attention illnesses of the household, protecting the estates in the absence of fathers, brothers, and husbands, and dealing with legal matters were vital to the smoothen running of estates."^[27] Despite not having easy access to a formal pedagogy, women were responsible for teaching their children. It was the parent's duty to guide their children through life past shaping their morals and values^[28] Therefore, women lacked the same opportunities every bit men. Despite this, they still proved useful running the household; whether that be taking care of children, sewing apparel, or doing household chores. Equality regarding teaching would not happen for a long time, only women made pocket-sized strides in learning to read and be literate, despite their lack of educational opportunities.

Typically, babyhood reached its end with matrimony. Theories behind virginity and processes of courtship during the early modernistic menstruation also enforced the patriarchal structure of lodge; marriage was as well another reminder of how that patriarchal structure affects households. Following wedlock, men and women typically evolved into parenthood, symbolizing the cease of their adolescence.

Before courtship occurred, there were pressures arising from both men and women's families for marriage, but there was also promiscuity between both parties. Men visiting bawdy-houses was non out of the ordinary; "young people announced then to accept been… less rigid in their morals than married adults. This was true of males and to some extent of females."^[29] Courtship occurred as well. This included "casual companionship" ^[xxx] at public events, only also meetings in much more than private areas; this included "regular meetings, close familiarity, and a great deal of physical contact in individual or semi-private places."^[30] On rare occasion, couples would spend an entire dark together where "the young woman lived, in an alehouse, or in the open air."^[xxx]

Following courtship, union ensued. Marriage was extremely important in early on modern society. Some historians even believe that this was one of the about important processes in obtaining adulthood.^[31] It "involved the formation of a separate household which performed a multiplicity of social and economical roles - it was a locus of male authority and rule, and a unit of procreation, consumption and product."^[31] The patriarchal household was crucial in a successful marriage. The husband primarily held the most power in the household, while the wife was in accuse of beingness a mother and educating her children, and maintaining the household.

Even though the patriarchal structure of marriage was important, at that place were limitations. There were many social expectations, peculiarly for women, regarding spousal relationship. The expectations of sexual habits surrounding married women resulted in certain attitudes to class effectually female youth.^[32] In fact, there were even pressures surrounding marriage before the adult female was fifty-fifty married; "family unit pressures on women's choice of partners and their courting were stronger than those placed on men."^[32] Despite how necessary information technology was for women to marry in order to fully succeed in life, women were extremely restricted in what they could practice. They were usually contained to working in the household unless their husband passed, or they needed actress money in which she would near probable accept a job in the material field. All in all, marriage was of import in symbolizing adulthood, but it still did restrict women and the roles they had in society.

Babyhood had multiple stages in early modern England. Each of these developmental stages had specific characteristics that were followed with jobs or responsibilities for family members. Women and men had similar characteristics in adolescence, but every bit they got older, both split ways to accept on their gender-specific roles, which implemented the idea of a patriarchal society.

Enlightenment era [edit]

The modern notion of childhood with its own autonomy and goals began to sally during the Enlightenment and the Romantic menstruum that followed it. Jean Jacques Rousseau formulated the romantic mental attitude towards children in his famous 1762 novel Emile: or, On Education. Building on the ideas of John Locke and other 17th-century thinkers, Rousseau described childhood every bit a brief period of sanctuary earlier people meet the perils and hardships of adulthood. "Why rob these innocents of the joys which pass so quickly," Rousseau pleaded. "Why fill with bitterness the fleeting early days of childhood, days which will no more return for them than for you?"^[33]

The idea of childhood as a locus of divinity and innocence is farther expounded upon in William Wordsworth's "Ode: Intimations of Immortality from Recollections of Early on Childhood", the imagery of which he "fashioned from a circuitous mix of pastoral aesthetics, pantheistic views of divinity, and an idea of spiritual purity based on an Edenic notion of pastoral innocence infused with Neoplatonic notions of reincarnation".^[34] This Romantic conception of babyhood, historian Margaret Reeves suggests, has a longer history than generally recognized, with its roots traceable to similarly imaginative constructions of childhood circulating, for instance, in the neo-platonic poetry of seventeenth-century metaphysical poet Henry Vaughan (due east.g., "The Retreate", 1650; "Childe-hood", 1655). Such views contrasted with the stridently didactic, Calvinist views of infant depravity.^[35]

These new attitudes can be discerned from the dramatic increase in artistic depictions of children at the time. Instead of depicting children as modest versions of adults typically engaged in 'adult' tasks, they were increasingly shown as physically and emotionally distinct and were often used every bit an allegory for innocence. Children are viewed and acknowledged as being powerless and inferior to the adult world surrounding them due to the myth of childhood innocence being accustomed and acknowledged by society.^{[ citation needed ]}

Sir Joshua Reynolds' extensive children portraiture conspicuously demonstrate the new enlightened attitudes toward young children. His 1788 painting The Age of Innocence, emphasizes the innocence and natural grace of the posing kid and before long became a public favourite.^{[ citation needed ]}

Building on Locke's theory that all minds began as a blank slate, the eighteenth century witnessed a marked ascent in children's textbooks that were more than easy to read, and in publications like poems, stories, novellas and games that were aimed at the impressionable minds of young learners. These books promoted reading, writing and drawing equally central forms of self-formation for children.^[36]

During this period children'due south education became more common and institutionalized, in lodge to supply the church and state with the functionaries to serve as their futurity administrators. Small-scale local schools where poor children learned to read and write were established past philanthropists, while the sons and daughters of the noble and conservative elites were given distinct educations at the grammar school and academy.^[37]

Children's rights nether the law [edit]

With the onset of industrialisation in England, a growing divergence between high-minded romantic ideals of babyhood and the reality of the growing magnitude of child exploitation in the workplace, became increasingly apparent. Although child labour was mutual in pre-industrial times, children would generally assist their parents with the farming or cottage crafts. Past the late 18th century, even so, children were specially employed at the factories and mines and every bit chimney sweeps,^[38] oftentimes working long hours in dangerous jobs for low pay.^[39] In England and Scotland in 1788, ii-thirds of the workers in 143 h2o-powered cotton mills were described as children.^[40] In 19th-century Corking Britain, one-third of poor families were without a breadwinner, as a event of death or abandonment, obliging many children to piece of work from a young age.^{[ citation needed ]}

In coal mines, children would crawl through tunnels as well narrow and low for adults.^[41]

As the century wore on, the contradiction between the atmospheric condition on the basis for children of the poor and the middle-form notion of childhood as a time of innocence led to the start campaigns for the imposition of legal protection for children. Reformers attacked child labor from the 1830s onward, bolstered by the horrific descriptions of London street life by Charles Dickens.^[42] The campaign that led to the Factory Acts was spearheaded by rich philanthropists of the era, particularly Lord Shaftesbury, who introduced Bills in Parliament to mitigate the exploitation of children at the workplace. In 1833 he introduced the Ten Hours Act 1833 into the Eatables, which provided that children working in the cotton and woollen industries must exist aged nine or higher up; no person under the age of eighteen was to work more than ten hours a day or eight hours on a Saturday; and no one nether twenty-five was to piece of work nights.^[43] Legal interventions throughout the century increased the level of childhood protection, despite the prevalence of the Victorian laissez-faire mental attitude toward regime interference. In 1856, the law permitted child labour by historic period 9 for 60 hours per week. In 1901, the permissible child labour age was raised to 12.^[44] ^[45]

Modern childhood [edit]

The mod attitude to children emerged past the late 19th century; the Victorian middle and upper classes emphasized the role of the family unit and the sanctity of the child – an attitude that has remained dominant in Western societies ever since.^[46] This can be seen in the emergence of the new genre of children's literature. Instead of the didactic nature of children'due south books of a previous age, authors began to write humorous, child-oriented books, more attuned to the child's imagination. Tom Brown'southward School Days by Thomas Hughes appeared in 1857, and is considered as the founding book in the school story tradition.^[47] Lewis Carroll'due south fantasy Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, published in 1865 in England, signalled the change in writing style for children to an imaginative and empathetic ane. Regarded as the showtime "English masterpiece written for children" and as a founding book in the development of fantasy literature, its publication opened the "Get-go Gilded Age" of children'due south literature in Britain and Europe that continued until the early 1900s.^[47]

Compulsory schooling [edit]

First procession of Armenian scouts in Constantinople in 1918

The latter half of the century also saw the introduction of compulsory state schooling of children across Europe, which decisively removed children from the workplace into schools. Modern methods of public schooling, with taxation-supported schools, compulsory attendance, and educated teachers emerged beginning in Prussia in the early 19th century,^[48] and was adopted by Great britain, the United states, France^[49] and other modern nations by 1900.

The marketplace economic system of the 19th century enabled the concept of childhood every bit a time of fun of happiness. Mill-made dolls and doll houses delighted the girls and organized sports and activities were played past the boys.^[l] The Boy Scouts was founded by Sir Robert Baden-Powell in 1908,^[51] which provided immature boys with outdoor activities aiming at developing character, citizenship, and personal fitness qualities.^[52]

The nature of childhood on the American frontier is disputed. One group of scholars, following the lead of novelists Willa Cather and Laura Ingalls Wilder, argue that the rural environment was salubrious. Historians Katherine Harris^[53] and Elliott West^[54] write that rural upbringing allowed children to break loose from urban hierarchies of age and gender, promoted family interdependence, and in the end produced children who were more self-reliant, mobile, adaptable, responsible, independent and more than in bear upon with nature than their urban or eastern counterparts. On the other mitt, historians Elizabeth Hampsten^[55] and Lillian Schlissel^[56] offer a grim portrait of loneliness, privation, abuse, and enervating physical labor from an early age. Riney-Kehrberg takes a middle position.^[57] Over the 21st century, some sex activity-option clinics^{[ clarification needed ]} accept shown a preference for female person children over male person children.^[58]

Creativity [edit]

In mid 20th century America, at that place was intense interest in using institutions to support the innate creativity of children. Information technology helped reshape children'due south play, the blueprint of suburban homes, schools, parks, and museums. Producers of children's television programming worked to spark inventiveness. Educational toys designed to teach skills or develop abilities proliferated. For schools at that place was a new accent on arts equally well as scientific discipline in the curriculum.^[59] The accent was reversed in the 1980s, equally public policy emphasized test scores, school principals downplayed annihilation that was not existence scored on standardized tests.^[60] Afterward 2000 some children became mesmerized by their cell phones, ofttimes checking their text messages or Facebook page.^[61] Checking Facebook and responding to text letters is a form of participatory civilisation. Participatory civilization is engaging with media and developing ones phonation and identity. By doing so, children are able to develop their voices and identities in a space separate from adults (Henry Jenkins). Co-ordinate to the UNCRC, children have the right to participate online with matters concerning them. They also have the correct to requite their opinions most sure matters, and these opinions should be heard by adults. Engaging in the digital environments gives children the access to worldwide issues, and also gives them the power to decide what parts of their lives they desire to keep private, and what parts they want to make public.

Non-Western globe [edit]

The modernistic concept of childhood was copied by non-Western societies as they modernized. In the vanguard was Japan, which actively began to appoint with the W subsequently 1860. Meiji era leaders decided that the nation-state had the principal role in mobilizing individuals – and children – in service of the state. The Western-style school was introduced as the amanuensis to reach that goal. By the 1890s, schools were generating new sensibilities regarding childhood.^[62] By the turn of the 20th century, Japan had numerous reformers, child experts, magazine editors, and well-educated mothers who had adopted these new attitudes.^[63] ^[64]

Historians and the History of Childhood [edit]

Children and childhood were long ignored in professional history writing according to professional historians who now occupy that field. For case, historians Elliott Westward and Paula Petrik wrote that "adults receive almost all the attending of those telling the stories of past societies while boys and girls, if mentioned at all, announced unremarkably as passive and peripheral creatures, pliant parties to forces beyond their control or amusing figures playing at the edges of the main action."^[65]

In the twentieth century, the history of childhood has get a subfield of social history within its own right with an expressed commitment to bring young, oft marginalised, people into historical narratives. Practitioners argue that history is less accurate if information technology does not take into business relationship immature people's presence and that despite often beingness less powerful than adults children could human activity with historical bureau themselves. The field is ofttimes divided, peculiarly by North American scholars, into "children's history" and "the history of childhood." The history of childhood is concerned with babyhood the social construct and frequently pays attending to adult opinions and representations of children. Children's history privileges the opinions and responses of children themselves.^[66]

Children's history in particular is sometimes said to encounter a "source problem" every bit children have not left backside the aforementioned types of written historical records equally adults.^[67] Some historians promote the thought that drawings by historical children tin can be used as historical sources to help empathize more about the experiences and opinions of young people in the past. Historian Jack Hodgson argues that although drawings often have a degree of ambivalence owing to the demand to interpret them they yet accept "enormous communicative potential" including "providing insight into unquantifiable feelings or emotions."^[68]

Notes [edit]

^ Stephen Wilson, "The myth of maternity a myth: the historical view of European child-rearing", Social History, May 1984, Vol. nine Issue two, pp. 181–198
^ King, M. Fifty. "Concepts of Babyhood: What We Know and Where We Might Go", Renaissance Quarterly (2007). JSTOR 10.1353/ren.2007.0147.
^ Nicholas Orme, Medieval Children (2003)
^ Olaf Pedersen, The Start Universities (1997).
^ Pearson, Lee Eastward. (1957). "Education of children". Elizabethans at home . Stanford University Press. pp. 140–41. ISBN0-8047-0494-five.
^ Simon, Joan (1966). Pedagogy and Gild in Tudor England. London: Cambridge University Printing. p. 373. ISBN978-0-521-22854-1.
^ Ballad G. Sigelman; Elizabeth A. Rider (2008). Life-Span Man Development. Cengage Learning. p. 8. ISBN978-0495553403.
^ Vivian C. Play a trick on, "Poor Children's Rights in Early Mod England," Journal of Psychohistory, Jan 1996, Vol. 23 Result 3, pp 286–306
^ Ben-Amos, Ilana Krausman, Adolescence and Youth in Early Modern England (New Haven, CT: Yale Academy Printing, 1994), 4.
^ Ben-Amos, Ilana Krausman, Adolescence and Youth in Early Modern England (New Oasis, CT: Yale University Printing, 1994), 11.
^ ^a ^b Ben-Amos, Ilana Krausman, Adolescence and Youth in Early Modern England (New Oasis, CT: Yale University Press, 1994), 12.
^ Ben-Amos, Ilana Krausman, Adolescence and Youth in Early Modern England (New Haven, CT: Yale University Printing, 1994), 16.
^ Ben-Amos, Ilana Krausman, Boyhood and Youth in Early Modernistic England (New Haven, CT: Yale Academy Press, 1994), 17.
^ Wiesner-Hanks, Merry E. Early Modernistic Europe 1450-1789 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Printing, 2016), 59.
^ Ben-Amos, Ilana Krausman, Adolescence and Youth in Early on Modern England (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1994),16.
^ Ben-Amos, Ilana Krausman, Adolescence and Youth in Early on Mod England (New Oasis, CT: Yale Academy Press, 1994), 18.
^ Shanley, Mary Lyndon, The History of the Family in Modern England (Signs four, no. iv, 1979), 742.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Ben-Amos, Ilana Krausman, Adolescence and Youth in Early Modern England (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1994), 41.
^ ^a ^b Ben-Amos, Ilana Krausman, Adolescence and Youth in Early on Modern England (New Haven, CT: Yale University Printing, 1994), 45.
^ ^a ^b Ben-Amos, Ilana Krausman, Adolescence and Youth in Early Modernistic England (New Haven, CT: Yale Academy Press, 1994), 42.
^ Ben-Amos, Ilana Krausman, Adolescence and Youth in Early Modern England (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1994), 66.
^ ^a ^b Ben-Amos, Ilana Krausman, Adolescence and Youth in Early Modern England (New Oasis, CT: Yale University Printing, 1994), 133.
^ Ben-Amos, Ilana Krausman, Adolescence and Youth in Early on Modern England (New Oasis, CT: Yale University Printing, 1994), 55.
^ Ben-Amos, Ilana Krausman, Boyhood and Youth in Early Modern England (New Haven, CT: Yale University Printing, 1994), 56.
^ Whitehead, Barbara, ed. WOMENS Instruction IN EARLY Mod EUROPE: a History, 1500 to 1800 (New York and London: Taylor & Francis, 1999), Sixteen.
^ Whitehead, Barbara, ed. WOMENS EDUCATION IN Early on Mod EUROPE: a History, 1500 to 1800 (New York and London: Taylor & Francis, 1999), X.
^ Whitehead, Barbara, ed. WOMENS EDUCATION IN Early Mod EUROPE: a History, 1500 to 1800 (New York and London: Taylor & Francis, 1999), 18.
^ Ben-Amos, Ilana Krausman, Adolescence and Youth in Early on Modern England (New Oasis, CT: Yale Academy Press, 1994),66.
^ Ben-Amos, Ilana Krausman, Adolescence and Youth in Early Modern England (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1994),201.
^ ^a ^b ^c Ben-Amos, Ilana Krausman, Adolescence and Youth in Early on Modern England (New Haven, CT: Yale Academy Press, 1994),200.
^ ^a ^b Ben-Amos, Ilana Krausman, Boyhood and Youth in Early Modern England (New Oasis, CT: Yale University Printing, 1994),208.
^ ^a ^b Ben-Amos, Ilana Krausman, Boyhood and Youth in Early Modernistic England (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1994),202.
^ David Cohen, The development of play (2006) p xx
^ Reeves, Margaret (2018). "'A Prospect of Flowers', Concepts of Childhood and Female Youth in Seventeenth-Century British Culture". In Cohen, Due east. Due south.; Reeves, Thousand. (eds.). The Youth of Early on Modern Women. Amsterdam University Printing. p. 40. doi:x.2307/j.ctv8pzd5z. ISBN9789048534982. JSTOR j.ctv8pzd5z. Retrieved 11 February 2018.
^ Reeves (2018), pp. 41–42.
^ Boil, Matthew Daniel (2010). "The Alphabets of Nature: Children, Books and Natural History, 1750–1800". Nuncius. 23: one–22.
^ Lougee, Carolyn C. (1974). "'Noblesse,' Domesticity, and Social Reform: The Education of Girls by Fenelon and Saint-Cyr". History of Education Quarterly. 14 (i): 87–113. doi:10.2307/367607. JSTOR 367607.
^ Laura Del Col, West Virginia Academy, The Life of the Industrial Worker in Nineteenth-Century England
^ Barbara Daniels, Poverty and Families in the Victorian Era
^ "Child Labour and the Division of Labour in the Early English language Cotton Mills". Douglas A. Galbi. Center for History and Economics, King's Higher, Cambridge CB2 1ST.
^ Jane Humphries, Childhood And Child Labour in the British Industrial Revolution (2010) p 33
^ Amberyl Malkovich, Charles Dickens and the Victorian Kid: Romanticizing and Socializing the Imperfect Child (2011)
^ Battiscombe, p. 88, p. 91.
^ "The Life of the Industrial Worker in Nineteenth-Century England". Laura Del Col, West Virginia Academy.
^ "The Manufactory and Workshop Act, 1901". Br Med J. ii (2139): 1871–2. 1901. doi:10.1136/bmj.2.2139.1871. PMC2507680. PMID 20759953.
^ Thomas E. Jordan, Victorian Child Savers and Their Culture: A Thematic Evaluation (1998)
^ ^a ^b Knowles, Murray (1996). Language and Control in Children'southward Literature. Psychology Printing. ISBN9780203419755.
^ Eda Sagarra, A Social History of Federal republic of germany 1648–1914 (1977) pp 275–84
^ Eugen Weber, Peasants into Frenchmen: The Modernization of Rural France, 1870–1914 (1976) pp 303–38
^ Howard Chudacoff, Children at Play: An American History (2008)
^ Woolgar, Brian; La Riviere, Sheila (2002). Why Brownsea? The Beginnings of Scouting. Brownsea Island Sentinel and Guide Direction Committee.
^ Boehmer, Elleke (2004). Notes to 2004 edition of Scouting for Boys. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
^ Katherine Harris, Long Vistas: Women and Families on Colorado Homesteads (1993)
^ Elliott W, Growing Up with the Country: Childhood on the Far Western Borderland (1989)
^ Elizabeth Hampsten, Settlers' Children: Growing Up on the Great Plains (1991)
^ Lillian Schlissel, Byrd Gibbens and Elizabeth Hampsten, Far from Home: Families of the West Journey (2002)
^ Pamela Riney-Kehrberg, Childhood on the Farm: Work, Play, and Coming of Age in the Midwest (2005)
^ Rosin, Hanna (2010). "The end of men". The Atlantic.
^ Amy F. Ogata, Designing the Creative Child: Playthings and Places in Midcentury America (2013)
^ Leo M. Casey, "The Will to Quantify: The 'Bottom Line' in the Marketplace Model of Pedagogy Reform." Teachers College Record 115.9 (2013)
^ Lee, Eastward. Bun (2015). "Too much information: Heavy smartphone and Facebook utilization by African American young adults". Periodical of Black Studies. 46 (1): 44–61. doi:ten.1177/0021934714557034. S2CID 145125914.
^ Brian Platt, "Japanese Babyhood, Modern Childhood: The Nation-State, the Schoolhouse, and 19th-Century Globalization," Journal of Social History, Summer 2005, Vol. 38 Issue 4, pp. 965–985. doi:10.1353/jsh.2005.0073. JSTOR 3790485.
^ Kathleen Due south. Uno, Passages to Modernity: Maternity, Childhood, and Social Reform in Early Twentieth Century Japan (1999)
^ Mark Jones, Children every bit Treasures: Babyhood and the Heart Grade in Early Twentieth Century Nihon (2010)
^ Due west, Elliott; Petrik, Paula (1992). Pocket-size Worlds, Children & Adolescents in America, 1850-1950. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas. p. 1. ISBN0-7006-0510-Ten.
^ Gleason, Mona (2016-07-03). "Avoiding the agency trap: caveats for historians of children, youth, and education". History of Education. 45 (four): 446–459. doi:10.1080/0046760X.2016.1177121. ISSN 0046-760X.
^ Stearns, Peter (2008). "Challenges in the History of Childhood". The Journal of the History of Childhood and Youth. 1: 35–42.
^ Hodgson, Jack (2021-04-03). "Accessing children's historical experiences through their fine art: four drawings of aerial warfare from the Castilian Civil War". Rethinking History. 25 (2): 145–165. doi:10.1080/13642529.2021.1928393. ISSN 1364-2529.

Bibliography [edit]

Cunningham, Hugh. Children and Childhood in Western Society since 1500. (1995); strongest on Britain
deMause, Lloyde, ed. The History of Childhood. (1976), psychohistory.
Hawes, Joseph and N. Ray Hiner, eds. Children in Historical and Comparative Perspective (1991), articles by scholars
Heywood, Colin. A History of Babyhood (2001), from medieval to 20th century; strongest on France
Kimmel, M. Due south., & Holler, J. (2011). 'The Gendered Family': Gender at the Heart of the Dwelling. In The Gendered Society (third ed., pp. 141–88). Don Mills, ON: Oxford University Press.
Pollock, Linda A. Forgotten Children: Parent-child relations from 1500 to 1900 (1983).
Sommerville, John. The Rise and Autumn of Babyhood (1982), from antiquity to the present

Literature & ideas [edit]

Bunge, Marcia J., ed. The Child in Christian Thought. (2001)
O'Malley, Andrew. The Making of the Modern Child: Children'southward Literature and Childhood in the Late Eighteenth Century. (2003).
Zornado, Joseph L. Inventing the Child: Civilization, Credo, and the Story of Babyhood. (2001), covers Shakespeare, Brothers Grimm, Freud, Walt Disney, etc.

Britain [edit]

Cunnington, Phillis and Anne Buck. Children's Costume in England: 1300 to 1900 (1965)
Battiscombe, Georgina. Shaftesbury: A Biography of the Seventh Earl. 1801–1885 (1974)
Hanawalt, Barbara. Growing Up in Medieval London: The Feel of Childhood in History (1995)
Lavalette; Michael. A Affair of the Past? Kid Labour in United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries (1999)
Olsen, Stephanie. Juvenile Nation: Youth, Emotions and the Making of the Modern British Citizen. (2014)
Pinchbeck, Ivy and Margaret Hewitt. Children in English Society. (2 vols. 1969); covers 1500 to 1948
Sommerville, C. John. The Discovery of Childhood in Puritan England. (1992).
Stone, Lawrence. The Family, Sexual activity and Union in England 1500–1800 (1979).
Tracy, Michael. The World of the Edwardian Child: As Seen in Arthur Mee's Children's Encyclopaedia, 1908-1910 (2008) "+&pg=PR1&printsec=frontcover online
Welshman, John. Churchill'due south Children: The Evacuee Feel in Wartime Uk (2010)

Europe [edit]

Ariès, Philippe. Centuries of Babyhood: A Social History of Family Life. (1962). Influential study on French republic that helped launch the field
Immel, Andrea and Michael Witmore, eds. Childhood and Children'due south Books in Early Mod Europe, 1550–1800. (2006).
Kopf, Hedda Rosner. Understanding Anne Frank's the Diary of a Young Girl: A Student Casebook to Issues, Sources, and Historical Documents (1997)
Krupp, Anthony. Reason's Children: Childhood in Early on Mod Philosophy (2009)
Nicholas, Lynn H. Cruel Globe: The Children of Europe in the Nazi Spider web (2005) 656pp
Orme, Nicholas. Medieval Children (2003)
Rawson, Beryl. Children and Childhood in Roman Italia (2003).
Schultz, James. The Knowledge of Childhood in the German Middle Ages.
Zahra, Tara. "Lost Children: Displacement, Family, and Nation in Postwar Europe," Journal of Mod History, March 2009, Vol. 81 Event 1, pp 45–86, covers 1945 to 1951 JSTOR ten.1086/593155.

United States [edit]

Bernstein, Robin. Racial Innocence: Performing American Childhood from Slavery to Civil Rights (2011) online edition
Block, James E. The Crucible of Consent: American Child Rearing and the Forging of Liberal Order (2012) extract and text search
Chudacoff, Howard. Children at Play: An American History (2008).
Del Mar, David Peterson. The American Family unit: From Obligation to Liberty (Palgrave Macmillan; 2012) 211 pages; the American family over four centuries.
Fass, Paula. The End of American Childhood: A History of Parenting from Life on the Frontier to the Managed Child (2016) extract
Fass, Paula, and Mary Ann Bricklayer, eds. Childhood in America (2000), 725pp; short excerpts from 178 main and secondary sources
Fass, Paula and Michael Grossberg, eds. Reinventing Childhood After World War Two (University of Pennsylvania Press; 2012) 182 pages; scholarly essays on major changes in the experiences of children in Western societies, with a focus on the U.Southward.
Fieldston, Sara. Raising the Globe: Kid Welfare in the American Century (Harvard Academy Printing, 2015) 316 pp.
Graff, Harvey J. Conflicting Paths: Growing Upwardly in America (1997), a theoretical approach that uses a great deal of material from children
Hiner, N. Ray Hiner, and Joseph 1000. Hawes, eds. Growing Up in America: Children in Historical Perspective (1985), essays by leading historians
Holt, Marilyn Irvin. Common cold State of war Kids: Politics and Babyhood in Postwar America, 1945–1960 (University Press of Kansas; 2014) 224 pages; emphasis on the growing role of politics and federal policy
Illick, Joseph E. American Childhoods (2002).
Klapper, Melissa R. Small Strangers: The Experiences of Immigrant Children in America, 1880–1925 (2007) excerpt
Marten, James, ed. Children and Youth during the Civil War Era (2012) extract and text search
Marten, James. Children and Youth in a New Nation (2009)
Marten, James. Childhood and Child Welfare in the Progressive Era: A Brief History with Documents (2004), includes chief sources
Marten, James. The Children's Civil State of war (2000) excerpt and text search
Mintz, Steven. Huck's Raft: A History of American Childhood (2004).
Riney-Kehrberg, Pamela. Childhood on the Farm: Work, Play, and Coming of Historic period in the Midwest (2005) 300 pp.
Riney-Kehrberg, Pamela. The Nature of Childhood: An Environmental History of Growing Up in America since 1865 (2014) excerpt and text search
Tuttle, Jr. William One thousand. Daddy'south Gone to War: The Second World State of war in the Lives of America'southward Children (1995)
West, Elliott, and Paula Petrik, eds. Small Worlds: Children and Adolescents in America, 1850–1950 (1992)
Zelizer, Viviana A. Pricing the Priceless Child: The Irresolute Social Value of Children (1994) Emphasis on use of life insurance policies. excerpt

Primary sources [edit]

Bremner, Robert H. et al. eds. Children and Youth in America, Volume I: 1600–1865 (1970); Children and Youth in America: A Documentary History, Vol. 2: 1866–1932 (2 vol 1971); Children and Youth in America: A Documentary History, Vol. 3: 1933–1973 (2 vol. 1974). 5 volume gear up

Latin America [edit]

González, Ondina Eastward. and Bianca Premo. Raising an Empire: Children in Early Modern Iberia & Colonial Latin America (2007) 258p; covers 1500–1800 with essays by historians on orphans and related topics
Rodríguez Jiménez, Pablo and María Emma Manarelli (coord.). Historia de la infancia en América Latina, Universidad Externado de Colombia, Bogotá (2007).
Rojas Flores, Jorge. Historia de la infancia en el Republic of chile republicano, 1810–2010, Ocho Libros, Santiago (2010), 830p. online access, total

Asia [edit]

Bai, Limin. "Children every bit the Youthful Hope of an Onetime Empire: Race, Nationalism, and Elementary Didactics in China, 1895–1915," Journal of the History of Childhood & Youth, March 2008, Vol. 1 Issue 2, pp 210–231
Cross, Gary and Gregory Smits.. "Nippon, the U.S. and the Globalization of Children'south Consumer Culture," Journal of Social History, Summer 2005, Vol. 38 Issue 4, pp 873–890
Ellis, Catriona. "Education for All: Reassessing the Historiography of Teaching in Colonial Bharat," History Compass, March 2009, Vol. vii Issue ii, pp 363–375
Hsiung, Ping-chen. Tender Voyage: Children & Childhood in Late Regal China (2005) 351pp
Jones, Mark A. Children every bit Treasures: Childhood and the Heart Class in Early on 20th Century Nippon (2010), covers 1890 to 1930
Platt, Brian. Burning and Building: Schooling and State Formation in Japan, 1750–1890 (2004)
Raddock, David Yard. "Growing Upward in New China: A Twist in the Circumvolve of Filial Piety," History of Babyhood Quarterly, 1974, Vol. ii Issue 2, pp 201–220
Saari, Jon L. Legacies of Childhood: Growing Upward Chinese in a Time of Crisis, 1890–1920 (1990) 379pp
Sen, Satadru. Colonial Childhoods: The Juvenile Periphery of India, 1860–1945 (2005)
Walsh, Judith East.. Growing Up in British India: Indian Autobiographers on Babyhood & Education nether the Raj (1983) 178pp
Weiner, Myron. Child and the Land in India (1991) 213 pp; covers 1947 to 1991

Canada [edit]

Sutherland, Neil, Children in English language-Canadian Society: Framing the Twentieth-Century Consensus (Toronto: Academy of Toronto Press, 1976, reprinted 1978).
Sutherland, Neil. Growing Up: Childhood in English language Canada From the Great War to the Age of Television receiver (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1997).
Comacchio, Cynthia. 'Nations are Built of Babies': Saving Ontario'south Mothers and Children, 1900 to 1940 (Montreal and Kingston McGill-Queen's Academy Press, 1993).
Comacchio, Cynthia. The Dominion of Youth: Boyhood and the Making of a Modern Canada, 1920 to 1950 (Waterloo: Wilfrid Laurier Academy Printing, 2006).
Myers, Tamara. Defenseless: Montreal's Modern Girls and the Constabulary (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2006).
Brookfield, Tarah. Cold War Comforts: Canadian Women, Child Safe, and Global Insecurity (Waterloo: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 2012).
Gleason, Mona. Normalizing the Ideal: Psychology, Schooling and the Family in Postwar Canada. (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1996).
Gleason, Mona. Small Matters: Canadian Children in Sickness and Health, 1900 to 1940. (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 2013).
Axelrod, Paul. The Hope of Schooling: Educational activity in Canada, 1800 to 1914. (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1997)

Global [edit]

Olsen, Stephanie, ed. Childhood, Youth and Emotions in Modernistic History: National, Colonial and Global Perspectives. (2015)

Child labour [edit]

"Kid Employing Industries," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science Vol. 35, Mar., 1910 JSTOR i242607, 32 essays by American experts in 1910
DiGirolamo, Vincent. Crying the News: A History of America's Newsboys (Oxford University Printing, 2019).
Goldberg, Ellis. Trade, Reputation, and Kid Labor in Twentieth-Century Arab republic of egypt (2004) excerpt and text search ]
Grier, Beverly. Invisible Hands: Child Labor and the State in Colonial Republic of zimbabwe (2005)
Hindman, Hugh D. Child Labor: An American History (2002)
Humphries, Jane. Childhood and Kid Labour in the British Industrial Revolution (Cambridge Studies in Economic History) (2011) excerpt and text search
Kirby, Peter. Child Labour in Great britain, 1750–1870 (2003) excerpt and text search
Mofford, Juliet. Child Labor in America (1970)
Tuttle, Carolyn. Hard At Piece of work In Factories And Mines: The Economics Of Child Labor During The British Industrial Revolution (1999)

Historiography [edit]

Cunningham, Hugh. "Histories of Babyhood," American Historical Review, October 1998, Vol. 103 Issue 4, pp 1195–1208 JSTOR 2651207
Fass, Paula. "The World is at our Door: Why Historians of Children and Childhood Should Open Up," Journal of the History of Childhood and Youth, Jan 2008, Vol. 1 Issue 1, pp xi–31 on U.S.
Hawes, Joseph K. and N. Ray Hiner, "Hidden in Patently View: The History of Children (and Childhood) in the Xx-Beginning Century," Periodical of the History of Childhood & Youth, January 2008, Vol. 1 Result 1, pp 43–49; on U.Southward.
Hodgson, Jack, "Accessing children'due south historical experiences through their art: four drawings of aeriform warfare from the Spanish Ceremonious State of war," Rethinking History, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1080/13642529.2021.1928393
Hsiung, Ping-chen. "Treading a Different Path? Thoughts on Childhood Studies in Chinese History," Journal of the History of Childhood & Youth, Jan 2008, Vol. 1 Issue 1, pp 77–85
King, Margaret L. "Concepts of Childhood: What We Know and Where We Might Go," Renaissance Quarterly Volume: lx. Issue: 2. 2007. pp 371+.
Premo, Bianca. "How Latin America'south History of Childhood Came of Age," Periodical of the History of Childhood & Youth, Jan 2008, Vol. 1 Issue 1, pp 63–76
Stearns, Peter N. "Challenges in the History of Childhood," Journal of the History of Childhood and Youth, Jan 2008, Vol. 1 Effect one, pp 35–42
Stearns, Peter Northward. Childhood in World History (2011)
W, Elliott. Growing Upwardly in Twentieth-Century America: A History and Reference Guide (1996)
Wilson, Adrian (1980). "The Infancy of the History of Childhood: An Appraisal of Philippe Ariès". History and Theory. 19 (two): 132–53. doi:10.2307/2504795. JSTOR 2504795.

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_childhood